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 grammar reference

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Personal subject and object pronouns

Personal subject pronouns

Personal subject pronouns always go BEFORE a verb. They represent the subject.

Examples:
I am a doctor.  You work a lot.  He is happy.  She is Mary. It is broken. We like films. You study English. They are looking at John.
           I

             you

            he

            she

            it       it
            we

            you

             they   

             they

           they

Personal object pronouns

Personal object pronouns always go AFTER a verb. They represent the object.
Examples:
Marta loves me.  Peter likes you.  We know him.  I phoned her. I don't like it. Are you calling us?. I can't you. I seevisit them.
 
They also go AFTER a preposition.
Examples:
Please come with me. I am looking for him. He's looking at her.
            me

            you

            him

            her

            it       it
            us

            you

             them  

             them

           them


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Possessive pronouns and adjectives

Possessive adjectives

Possessive adjectives usually ACCOMPANY a noun, and they indicate possession.
Examples:
This is my friend. This is your dog (=you have got a dog). This is his bag (=he has got a bag). He is her brother (=she has got a brother). This is our friend (=we have got a friend).  This is your picture (=you have got a picture). She is their cousin (=they have got a cousin).
NOTE that possessive adjectives never end in -s in the plural. Example: These are mys friends. These are my friends.
            my

            your

            his

            her

            its       its
            our

            your

            their  

            their

           their

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns usually SUBSTITUTE a possessive adjective + noun.
Examples:
This car is mine. = This car is my car. My car is bigger than yours. = My car is bigger than your car. I like my house, but I don't like theirs. = I don't like their house.
            mine

            yours

            his

            hers

            its       its
            ours

            yours

             theirs  

             theirs

             theirs


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The plural

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL

In general, we add "-s":

For example:

   one book            two books

  one apple               two apples

   one boy            two boys

SPECIAL CASES:

We add "-es":

* With nouns ending in -s:

   one bus            two buses

* With nouns ending in -sh:

   one brush             two brushes

* With nouns ending in -ch:

   one church             two churches

* With nouns ending in -x:

   one box             two boxes

* With nouns ending in -o:

   one tomato             two tomatoes

We add "-ies"

With nouns ending in consonant + -y (and we remove the "-y"):

   one baby             two babies

Nouns ending in "-f" or "-fe" change "-f" into "-v" and add "-es"

   one wolf             two wolves

   one knife             two knives

   one shelf             two shelves

          one life                 two lives            

       one housewife          two housewives            

IRREGULAR PLURALS (nouns that do not admit +"-s"

   one foot             two feet

   one tooth             a lot of teeth

   one woman              two women

     one man              two men

     one child                two children

     one person                a lot of people

     one mouse                two mice

   one goose         two geese

   one louse          two lice

     one sheep                two sheep

   one fish          two fish

 
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a / an, some, any

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES

 

countable

uncountable

singular

a / an

some

plural

some

 

 

NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES

 

countable

uncountable

singular

a / an

any

plural

any

 

 

Countable nouns are nouns that can be accompanied by a number. Countable nouns can be counted. For example: a glass, an apple, five euros, twenty people, three cars, six hours, two chairs.

Uncountable nouns cannot be accompanied by a number. They cannot be counted. They usually refer to abstract qualities, liquids, materials, collections, etc.  For examle: love, water, plastic, food, fruit, rubbish, money, electricity, time, furniture.

  A presentation: Countable or uncountable?

 

  ●  We use  a  or  an  with countable singular nouns, in affirmative, negative or interrogative sentences.

            a  + word with consonant      There is an apple.  There isn't an egg.  Is there an orange?

                                                                  I have got an apple. Do you want an apple?

            an   + word with vowel           There is a pear.  There isn't a melon.  Is there a tomato?

  ●  We use  some  in affirmative sentences with plural nouns, and with uncountable nouns (always singular). Some means "more than one". It doesn't indicate quantity.

                There are some books on the shelf.        There is some food in the basket.

  ●  We use  any  in negative or interrogative sentences with plural nouns, and with uncountable nouns (always singular).

                 There aren't any books on the shelf.   Are there any books on the shelf?

                    There isn't any food in the basket.  Is there any food in the basket?



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Comparison: the comparative and the superlative

Comparative and superlative: use AND EXAMPLES

We use the COMPARATIVE when we compare two things or people.

For example:

                       

           Pau              Trevor                   Robert

        Pau is taller than Trevor.         Trevor is taller than Robert.         Robert is shorter than Trevor.         Robert is more famous than Trevor.
 
                                         
         Jane                Pat                     Bertha
        Jane is more beautiful than Pat.         Pat is more beautiful than Bertha.         Pat is uglier than Jane.
 
We use the SUPERLATIVE when we compare one thing or person with two or more things or people.
For example:
                       
            Pau                    Trevor                        Robert
        Pau is the tallest (of the three).         Robert is the shortest (of the three).         Pau is the best and the most famous basketball player in the world.
 
 
                                     
            Jane                    Pat                    Bertha
        Jane is the most beautiful (of the three).         Jane is the most beautiful actress in our country.         Bertha is the ugliest (of the three).
 

The comparative: form

We use the comparative when we compare two things or people. We use the particle than to introduce the second element.
For example:
        Pau (element 1) is taller than Trevor (element 2).      
 
There are two ways of putting and adjective into the comparative form, depending on the adjective.

    a) With short adjectives, we add -er to the adjective. 
    Short adjectives have got one or two syllables. For example:
         clean -> cleaner          long -> longer          short -> shorter          fast -> faster
    Attention: with adjectives ending in -e we add only -r. For example:
         nice -> nicer          safe -> safer
    Attention: with adjectives ending in -y we take away the -y and add -ier. For example:
         happy -> happier          easy -> easier          scary -> scarier
    Attention: with adjectives ending in consonant + vowel + consonant we double the last consonant.
    For example:
         big -> bigger          fat -> fatter          thin -> thinner
    Attention: some adjectives have irregular forms. For example:
         good -> better          bad -> worse          far -> farther / further

    b) With long adjectives, we add "more" in front of the adjective. 
    Long adjectives have got two or more syllables. For example:
         beautiful -> more beautiful          important -> more important          boring -> more boring          famous -> more famous
 

The superlative: form

We use the superlative when we compare one thing or person with two or more things or people. We use the particle the to introduce the adjective.
For example:
    Pau is the most famous player in the world.
 
There are two ways of putting and adjective into the superlative form, depending on the adjective.

    a) With short adjectives, we add -est to the adjective. 
    Short adjectives have got one or two syllables. For example:
         clean -> cleanest          long -> longest          short -> shortest          fast -> fastest
    Attention: with adjectives ending in -e we add only -st. For example:
         nice -> nicest          safe -> safest
    Attention: with adjectives ending in -y we take away the -y and add -iest. For example:
         happy -> happiest          easy -> easiest          scary -> scariest
    Attention: with adjectives ending in consonant + vowel + consonant we double the last consonant.
    For example:
         big -> biggest          fat -> fattest          thin -> thinnest
    Attention: some adjectives have irregular forms. For example:
         good -> best          bad -> worst          far -> farthest / furthest

b) With long adjectives, we add "most" in front of the adjective. 
Long adjectives have got two or more syllables. For example:
         beautiful -> most beautiful          important -> most important          boring -> most boring          famous -> most famous
 

SUMMARY OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE (WITH EXAMPLES)

 

COMPARATIVE

we compare two things

Particle: than

SUPERLATIVE

we compare one thing with two or more

Particle: the

short adjectives

shorter than

smaller than

bigger than

easier than

the shortest

the smallest

the biggest

the easiest

long adjectives

more comfortable than

more intelligent than

more dangerous than

the most comfortable

the most intelligent

the most dangerous

irregular adjectives

good, bad, far

better than

worse than

farther than / further than

the best

the worst

the farthest / the furthest

 

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Equality and unequality

To express equality, that two things are similar, we use a different construction: 
              as + adjective + as 
To express unequality, that two things are different, not similar, we use this construction with a negative verb.

For example: 
                  
 150 euros     =   150 euros
The ring is as expensive as the watch.   (EQUALITY)
The ring isn't as useful as the watch.  (UNEQUALITY)


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The present simple

The present simple: the verb to be

AFFIRMATIVE

I am / I'm
you are /  you're
he is / he's
she is / she's
it is / it's
we are / we're
you are / you're
they are /  they're

NEGATIVE

I am not / I'm not
you are not / you aren't
he is not / he isn't
she is not / she isn't
it is not / it isn't
we are not / we aren't
you are not / you aren't
they are not / they aren't

INTERROGATIVE

Am I?
Are you?
Is he?
Is she?
Is it?
Are we?
Are you?
Are they?

Use of the verb to be in the present simple

We use the verb be to describe the appearance or the feelings or of people or things:

  He is tall.             He is happy.

We use the verb be to express a permanent or a temporary state of people or things:

It is dark.    I am hungry.

We use the verb be to express a job:

   He is a teacher.

We use the verb be to describe where people are:

   They are at school.

We use the verb be to express the age of a person:

      She is two years old.

We use the verb be to describe the weather:

The weather is cold in the winter.    It is warm and sunny today.


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The present simple: the verb have got

Affirmative

I have got / I've got
you have got / you've got
he has got / he's got
she has got / she's got
it has got / it's got
we have got / we've got
you have got / you've got
they have got / they've got

Negative

I haven't got
you haven't got
he hasn't got
she hasn't got
it hasn't got
we haven't got
you haven't got
they haven't got

Interrogative

Have I got?
Have you got?
Has he got?
Has she got?
Has it got?
Have we got?
Have you got?
Have they got?

Use of the verb have got in the present simple

We use the verb have got to speak about possessions in the present.  

She has got long hair.  She hasn't got long hair.

 
They have got presents.

 He hasn't got a guitar.

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The present simple

affirmative

Subject + verb (+ s / es)

I work
you work
he works *
she works *
it works *
we work
you work
they work

Negative

Subject + do(es)n't + infinitive

I don't work
you don't work
he doesn't work
she doesn't work
it doesn't work
we don't work
you don't work
they don't work

Interrogative

Do(es) + subject + infinitive

Do I work?
Do you work?
Does he work?
Does she work?
Does it work?
Do we work?
Do you work?
Do they work?

* Spelling 

We add -es and not -s to the verb with:
a) Verbs ending in -ch, -sh, -ss, -x  
     Examples: She watches TV. She washes the car. He misses his friend. He fixes the radio.
b) Verbs ending in -o
     Examples: He does the homework. She goes to the cinema.
c) Verbs ending in consonant + -y
     Examples: He studies English. She carries a bag.  (!But not: She plays the piano.)

 

verb affirmative negative interrogative
play play / plays don't play / doesn't play do ... play / does ... play
study study / studies don't study / doesn't study do ... study / does ... study
listen listen / listens don't listen / doesn't listen do ... listen / does ... listen
work work / works don't work / doesn't work do ... work / does ... work
ask ask / asks don't ask / doesn't ask do ... ask / does ... ask
travel travel / travels don't travel / doesn't travel do ... travel / does ... travel
finish finish / finishes don't finish / doesn't finish do ... finish / does ... finish
catch catch / catches don't catch / doesn't catch do ... catch / does ... catch
pass pass / passes don't pass / doesn't pass do ... pass / does ... pass
fax fax / faxes don't fax / doesn't fax do ... fax / does ... fax
enjoy enjoy / enjoys don't enjoy / doesn't enjoy do ... enjoy / does ... enjoy

 

Use of the present simple 

See: Present simple or present continuous?


 
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Adverbs of frequency and time expressions

adverbs of frequency
100% always
  usually, normally, generally
  frequently, regularly
  often
50% sometimes
  occasionally
  rarely, infrequently
  seldom
  hardly ever, almost never
0% never

 

These words have a special position in the sentence: Just before the verb, except with the verbs be, can and other modal verbs.
Examples:
I always watch TV. She usually washes the car. We sometimes go to the cinema. They rarely go to a restaurant. I never smoke. She is often at home. She can sometimes help me. 

TIME EXPRESSIONS
Other time expressions used with the Present simple are for example:
    every day, every week, every month, every year, every summer, in the morning, in the summer, after school, once a week, twice a month, three times a year,
Time expressions in general have a special position in the sentence: at the beginning or at the end.
Examples:
    He watches TV every day. He goes to the cinema every evening.     She studies English once a week. She travels to London twice a year.     She phones her family on Sundays.

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The present continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is + verb+-ing
I am working
you are working
he is working
she is working
it is working
we are working
you are working
they are working

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not / aren't / isn't + verb+-ing
I am not working
you aren't working
he isn't working
she isn't working
it isn't working
we aren't working
you aren't working
they aren't working

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject + verb+-ing
am I working?
are you working?
is he working?
is she working?
is it working?
we working?
are you working?
are they working?

 * SPELLING: verb + -ing 

a) Verbs ending in -e  -> -e disappears
    dance -> dancing;  come -> coming;  write -> writing

b) Doubling of consonants
    with verbs ending in [1 consonant + 1 vowel + 1 consonant] and
         b1) end in -l (only in British English)
               travel -> travelling; cancel -> cancelling  (in British English only)
         b2) have 1 syllable
               swim -> swimming;  run -> running;  put -> putting
         b3) have 2 syllables, and the stress is on the last syllable
               prefer -> preferring;  begin -> beginning;  admit -> admitting

c) Verbs ending in -ie  -> -ying
    die -> dying;  lie -> lying

NOTE: play -> playing;  study -> studying;  carry -> carrying;  buy -> buying
 

TIME EXPRESSIONS

 Time expressions used with the present continuous are for example:

        now, right now, at the moment, today

As with time expressions in general, they are usually at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
Examples:
He is watching TV now.  I am reading the newspaper right now.  We aren't playing at the moment.
 

USE OF THE pRESENT cONTINUOUS  

See: Present Simple or Present Continuous?

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Present simple or present continuous?


Use of the present simple 

We use the present simple to:

a) talk about actions that occur with regularity, to talk about habits.
I don't usually walk to work. I usually drive my car to work. 
   
b) talk about permanent situations
I live in a big city.

c) express our opinions, likes, etc.
I like the cinema.      I don't like vegetables.     

d) talk about general facts.
The sun rises in the East.

e) talk about some future actions.
See: Expressing the future

Use of the present continuous

We use the present continuous:

a) to talk about actions that are happening at the moment of speaking.
He is drinking (now).

b) to talk about actions that are happening about this time, but not necessarily at the moment of speaking
    She is writing an important scientific article.

c) to talk about temporary, not permanent or usual, actions.
 
She usually drives to work, but today she's going by bus. (She's not on the bus right now. We are expressing an exception to her habit.)


Our friend John is living with us this month. (He does not live with us, it is only for this month.)


d) to talk about some future actions.
See: Expressing the future



Compare: 
  He is a teacher.    -Does he correct exams?  -Yes, he does. He corrects exams      because this is part of his job.      We use the Present Simple for habits.     -Is he correcting exams?  -No, he isn't. He is teaching a lesson. 
   We use the Present Continuous for actions happening now. 
 
      He is a baker.     -Does he make bread? -Yes, he does. -Is he making bread?  -Yes, he is.    -Does he make cakes? -Yes, he does. -Is he making a cake?  -No, he isn't.     -Does he make shoes?  -No, he doesn't.
 
Compare also: 
    every day       today    
I usually ride my bicycle to school,  (-> habit: Present Simple) but today I am walking, because my bicycle is broken.  
(-> no habit: Pres. Continuous)
 

verbs not used in the continuous form

Some verbs don't express actions. They express feelings, mental processes, etc. Feelings and mental processes are not deliberate actions. These verbs are not used in the continuous form.

These verbs are:

a) Verbs of the senses
        feel, hear, see, smell, taste, sound
Mmm, this rose smells very nice.

b) Verbs of feeling and emotions
    like, dislike, love, hate, enjoy, want
I'm very hungry. I want to eat.

I don't like vegetables.

c) Verbs of mental activity
    remember, understand, believe, know, forget, guess, think
Now I understand the problem!

d) The verb have when it is a synonym of "possess".
He has a lot of money.
(But not when it is part of expressions like: have breakfast, have lunch, have dinner, have a shower, have a bath...)
He is having a bath.
 

e) Prices and measures.

    cost, measure, weigh

 

The car costs £ 49.

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there is / there are, there was / there were

in the present

We use there is or there are to talk about the existence of things or persons.
        There is  + singular
        There are + plural

In Spanish, there is  and  there are mean "HAY".
There is one apple. There is a woman. There is some tea. There are two apples. There are a lot of people.

In the past

We use there was or there wereto talk about the existence of things or persons.
        There was  + singular
        There were + plural

There was an accident yesterday. 

There was a woman.

There was some tea.
 
   There were two apples.
 
There were a lot of people.
 
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The past simple

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + verb+-ed 
                  /2nd column
REGULAR               IRREGULAR
I worked
I went
you worked  
you went
he worked
he went
she worked
she went
it worked
it went
we worked
we went
you worked
you went
they worked
they went

NEGATIVE

Subject + didn't + infinitive
REGULAR                 IRREGULAR
I didn't work 
I didn't go
you didn't work 
you didn't go
he didn't work
he didn't go
she didn't work 
she didn't go
it didn't work 
it didn't go
we didn't work 
we didn't go
you didn't work 
you didn't go
they didn't work 
they didn't go

INTERROGATIVE

Did + subject + infinitive
REGULAR                      IRREGULAR

Did I work? 
Did I go?
Did you work? 
Did you go?
Did he work? 
Did he go?
Did she work? 
Did she go?
Did it work? 
Did it go?
Did we work? 
Did we go?
Did you work? 
Did you go?
Did they work? 
Did they go? 

* Spelling: verb + -ed
a) Verbs ending in -e  -> -e disappears
    dance -> danced;  love -> loved;  like -> liked; die -> died

b) Doubling of consonants
    with verbs ending in [1 consonant + 1 vowel + 1 consonant] and
         b1) end in -l (only in British English, but not in American English)
               travel -> travelled; cancel -> cancelled  (in British English only)
         b2) have 1 syllable
               stop -> stopped;  plan -> planned; chat -> chatted
         b3) have 2 syllables, and the stress is on the last syllable
               prefer -> preferred;  admit -> admitted (because we pronounce: pre'fer, ad'mit)
              ! but not: answer -> answered; visit -> visited; listen -> listened (because we pronounce: 'answer)
c) Verbs ending in consonant + -y -> consonant + ied
                  study ->  studied; carry -> carried
              ! but not:  play -> played;  stay -> stayed;  enjoy -> enjoyed

Irregular verbs list

To express the past, we add -ed to the end of a verb. But some verbs do not admit -ed. Those verbs are for example: go, be, come, drink, eat,... They are irregular verbs. Irregular verbs follow no rules, you must learn them from a list.
Here are some examples:
         go -> goed  went          drink -> drinked  drank          eat -> eated  ate          be -> bed  was / were*
            * The verb be in the past follows different rules. (see it here)

Click here to see a list of irregular verbs with Spanish translation.
 
 

Use of the past simple


We use the Past Simple
a) to talk about actions that happened in the past. They started and finished in the past.

Shakespeare was a writer. He was born in England in 1564. He wrote a lot of theatre plays and poems. He died in 1616. He was a contemporary of Cervantes, but most probably he didn't know him or his writings.
b) to talk about past habits
We often went to the beach.

TIME EXPRESSIONS

Some expressions that can be used with a past simple verb are for example:
     yesterday, the day before yesterday      last night, last week, last weekend, last month, last summer, last year, an hour ago, two months ago, in 1990

As with time expressions in general, they are usually at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

Examples:
He watched TV last Sunday. He went to the cinema last night. She studied English two years ago. She travelled to London in 2003. 



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The past simple: to be

AFFIRMATIVE

I was
you were
he was
she was
it was
we were
you were
they were

NEGATIVE

I was not / I wasn't
you were not / you weren't
he was not / he wasn't
she was not / she wasn't
it was not / it wasn't
we were not / we weren't
you were not / you weren't
they were not / they weren't

INTERROGATIVE

Was I?
Were you?
Was he?
Was she?
Was it?
Were we?
Were you?
Were they?



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used to

AFFIRMATIVE

I used to + verb
you used to + verb
he used to + verb
she used to + verb
it used to + verb
we used to + verb
you used to + verb
they used to + verb

NEGATIVE

I didn't use to + verb
you didn't use to + verb
he didn't use to + verb
she didn't use to + verb
it didn't use to + verb
we didn't use to + verb
you didn't use to + verb
they didn't use to + verb

INTERROGATIVE

Did I use to + verb?
Did you use to + verb?
Did he use to + verb?
Did she use to + verb?
Did it use to + verb?
Did we use to + verb?
Did you use to + verb?
Did they use to + verb?


Use of the expression used to + verb

We use the used to + an infinitive verb to talk about past habits. We want to express that the action happened regularly in the past.
    I used to walk to school.     When I was a child, I used to play football very well.     When she was young she used to have long hair.

There is a contrast with the present:
When I was a child, I used to have long hair.
This means that I NO LONGER have long hair at present. "Used to" implies that the present is different to the past. (I had long hair when I was a child, but now I have short hair.)




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The Past Continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + was / were + verb+-ing
I was working
you were working
he was working
she was working
it was working
we were working
you were working
they were working

NEGATIVE

Subject + wasn't / weren't + verb+-ing
I wasn't working
you weren't working
he wasn't working
she wasn't working
it wasn't working
we wasn't working
you wasn't working
they wasn't working

INTERROGATIVE

was / were + Subject + verb+-ing
was I working?
were you working?
was he working?
was she working?
was it working?
were we working?
were you working?
were you working?


 SPELLING: verb + -ing 
a) Verbs ending in -e  -> -e disappears    
    dance -> dancing;  come -> coming;  write -> writing

b) Doubling of consonants
    with verbs ending in [1 consonant + 1 vowel + 1 consonant] and
         b1) end in -l (only in British English, not in American English)
               travel -> travelling; cancel -> cancelling  (in British English only)
         b2) have 1 syllable
               swim -> swimming;  run -> running;  put -> putting
         b3) have 2 syllables, and the stress is on the last syllable
               prefer -> preferring;  begin -> beginning;  admit -> admitting
               but not: answering, listening, visiting (because they have the stress on the first syllable)

c) Verbs ending in -ie  -> -ying
    die -> dying;  lie -> lying

NOTE: play -> playing;  study -> studying;  carry -> carrying;  buy -> buying
 

Use of the past continuous

We use the Past Continuous to talk about actions that were in progress in the past, at a particular moment.
Example:
Yesterday at 8.30 they were having breakfast.
This means that breakfast had started some time before 8:30 and was in progress or had not finished at 8:30

 
Yesterday while the children were playing in the park, Sally was reading.
This means that both actions were in progress at the same time and had approximately the same duration.
 

TIME EXPRESSIONS
Time expressions used with a past continuous verb are for example:
     yesterday, the day before yesterday      last night, last week, last weekend, last month, last summer, last year,      an hour ago, two months ago, in 1990
We put these expressions at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

Examples:
I was watching TV at three o'clock last Sunday.  I was having a shower when you phoned last night.
 
 


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Past simple or past continuous?

When two actions coincided at a particular moment, the Past Continuous expresses the action that had started previously, and was in progress, when the other action happened. 

When I was watching TV, the telephone rang.
I was watching TV when the telephone rang. 

 

When Peter was driving his car, he hit a tree. Peter was driving his car when he hit a tree.



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The present perfect

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + have / has + participle

REGULAR                   IRREGULAR
I have worked
I have gone  
you have worked
you have gone  
he has worked
he has gone  
she has worked
she has gone  
 it has worked 
it has gone  
we have worked
we have gone  
you have worked
you  have gone  
they have worked
they have gone  

NEGATIVE

Subject + haven't / hasn't + participle

REGULAR                   IRREGULAR

I haven't worked
I haven't gone  
you haven't worked
you haven't gone  
he hasn't worked
he hasn't gone  
she hasn't worked
she hasn't gone  
 it hasn't worked 
it hasn't gone  
we haven't worked
we haven't gone  
you haven't worked
you haven't gone  
they haven't worked
they haven't gone  

INTERROGATIVE

have / has + subject + participle

REGULAR                   IRREGULAR

have I worked?
have I gone?
have you worked?
have you gone? 
has he worked?
has he gone? 
has she worked?
has she gone? 
has it worked?
has it gone? 
have we worked?
have we gone? 
have you worked?
have you gone?
have they worked?
have they worked?

the participle: formation
There are regular verbs and irregular verbs.

In English, we add -ed to a verb to form the past participle of a regular verb:
    work -> worked

* Spelling: verb + -ed
The spellling rules are like those for the formation of the past simple:

a) Verbs ending in -e  -> -e disappears
    dance -> danced;  love -> loved;  like -> liked; die -> died

b) Doubling of consonants
    with verbs ending in [1 consonant + 1 vowel + 1 consonant] and
         b1) end in -l (only in British English, but not in American English)
             travel -> travelled; cancel -> cancelled  (in British English only)
         b2) have 1 syllable
               stop -> stopped;  plan -> planned;  chat -> chatted
         b3) have 2 syllables, and the stress is on the last syllable
               prefer -> preferred;  admit -> admitted (because we pronounce: pre'fer, ad'mit)
              ! but not: answer -> answered; visit -> visited; listen -> listened (because we pronounce: 'answer, etc.)
c) Verbs ending in consonant + -y -> consonant + ied
                  study ->  studied; carry -> carried
              ! but not:  play -> played;  stay -> stayed;  enjoy -> enjoyed
 
* Attention: IRREGULAR VERBS 
Some verbs do not admit -ed. Those verbs are for example: go, be, come, drink, eat,... They are irregular verbs. Irregular verbs follow no rules, you must learn them from a list.
Here are some examples:
         go -> goed  gone          drink -> drinked  drunk          eat -> eated  eaten          be -> bed  been*

Click here to see a list of irregular verbs with Spanish translation.
 

Use of the present perfect

When an action or a situation is expressed in the present perfect, there is a connexion between the present and the past.

We use the present perfect:

a) to talk about recent past actions

Compare:
He is eating an apple (now).She has eaten an apple.

She is climbing a mountain (now).They have climbed a mountain.

 She has finished her work.
 

b) recent actions that have results in the present
She hasn't finished her work. (And she's still working.)

Tom has had an accident. (And now he has got a broken leg.)

c) to talk about experiences of a living person
I have always had good marks.

I have travelled to many countries.

    NOTE: If a person is dead, we use the past simple:
        Shakespeare wrote a lot of plays and poems.

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Particles: never, ever, just, already, yet, since, for

These expressions can be used with the Present Perfect:
NEVER
He has never played computer games. 
(Spanish: Él nunca ha jugado a juegos de ordenador.)
We put never before the participle.
 
 
EVER?
Have you ever visited Rome?
(Spanish: ¿Has visitado Roma alguna vez?)
Ever means 'at any time in the past'.

                            We put ever before the participle.
 

EVER
It is the best film I have ever seen.

(Spanish: Es la mejor película que he visto nunca.)

We use ever with superlatives.

We put ever before the participle.

(not) EVER
He hasn't ever walked.  = He has never walked.

 (not ever) means 'never'. Never is more usual than not ever.

 
YET (?)
Have you made your bed yet?
(Spanish: ¿Has hecho ya tu cama?)
We put yet at the end of the sentence.
 
(not) YET
She hasn't had her baby yet.
(Spanish: Ella aún no ha tenido a su bebé.)
We put yet at the end of the sentence.
   
ALREADY
She has already had her baby.
(Spanish: Ella ya ha tenido a su bebé.)
We put already before the participle.
 
 
JUST  
They have just married. 
(Spanish: Acaban de casarse.)
Just means 'very recently'.

We put just before the participle.
   

FOR  (+ a period of time)
I haven't seen the dentist for one year.
(Spanish: No he ido al dentista desde hace un año.)
We use for with a period of time.

Other examples: or one month, for two hours, for three years, for a long time, for a while
 
 

SINCE  (+ a particular moment)
I haven't ridden my bicycle since last month.
(Spanish: No he ido en bici desde el mes pasado.)
We use since with a particular moment. This moment indicates when the action started. 

Other examples: since 1997, since yesterday, since three o'clock, since my birthday, since I was a child
 

"FOR" or "DURING"?
"For" indicates duration, how long the action took place.
"During" indicates the moment when the action took place.

Examples:

It rained for two hours. 

= It rained from 12 o'clock to 2 o'clock. 
- How long did it rain?  - For two hours.

It rained during the night
=It rained at some time at night. 
- When did it rain?  - During the night.

I lived in Paris for three months.
- How long did you live in Paris?  - From January to March.

I travelled to Paris three times during the summer.
- When did you travel to Paris?   - During the summer.


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Present perfect or past simple? 

We use the present perfect to talk about events and experiences that happened in the past, but we do not specify when. We refer to an unfinished period of time. 
Compare:
Last summer I read a very interesting novel. 
-> We specify the particular moment and this moment is over. 
We use the Past Simple.
I have read many interesting novels in my life
-> We do not specify the moment, but refer to an unfinished period of past time that is still valid today. 
We use the Present Perfect.
 
THE PRESENT PERFECT FOR SPANISH SPEAKERS
The present perfect is sometimes similar to Spanish, but sometimes very different. Look at these examples:

a) The present perfect is similar to Spanish:

- When we talk about something recent. (We don't mention the particular moment.)
  I have read her novel recently.  = He leído su novela recientemente.

- When we talk about something new. (We don't mention the particular moment.)
  I have bought a car.  = Me he comprado un coche.

- With ever, never, already, yet.
   Have you ever visited another country?  = ¿Has visitado otro país alguna vez?
   I have never seen an elephant.  = Nunca he visto un elefante.
   I have already done my homework.  = Ya he hecho mis deberes.
   I haven't finished my homework yet.  = Aún no he terminado mis deberes.

b) The present perfect is different from Spanish:

- With just.
   I have just seen Martha.  = Acabo de ver a Martha.

-"Llevar haciendo algo desde (hace) tiempo." (usually with for or since). In Spanish, a present tense is used:
    Vivo en Valencia desde 2002. / desde hace cuatro años.     ¿Cuánto tiempo llevas viviendo en Valencia?
En esta situación, en español se utiliza un presente de indicativo (vivo, llevas) cuando la acción sigue siendo válida en el presente: ahora vivo en Valencia, y lo hago desde hace cuatro años.
Aquí no habría una correspondencia exacta con el inglés, ya que no sería correcto usar un present simple:
 I live in Valencia for four years,
sino un present perfect:
I have lived in Valencia for four years.
Tengamos en cuenta que no sólo estamos hablando del presente, ("vivo en Valencia", sino que también estamos hablando de los últimos cuatro años. Es decir estamos hablando a la vez del pasado reciente y del presente, de dónde vivo ahora y de dónde he vivido en los últimos cuatro años. El present perfect inglés es el tiempo que se usa para hablar del pasado que incluye el presente. Así:
   Vivo en Valencia desde hace cuatro años.  =  I have lived in Valencia for four years.
En ambas lenguas, se entiende que la acción tienen vigencia ahora, es decir, que ahora vivo en Valencia.
En cambio, observa el siguente ejemplo:
   Antes, he vivido en Madrid, Barcelona y París.  = Before that, I lived in Madrid, Barcelona and Paris.
En ambas lenguas, se entiende que la acción pertenece al pasado.
Para introducir la expresión de tiempo que acompañaría al Present Perfect, se usa for o since,  de la siguiente manera:
          for + un período de tiempo:  
                   for one month, for two hours, for three years, for a long time, for a while
         since + un momento puntual e implica "desde ese momento hasta ahora":  
                   since 1997, since yesterday, since last year, since three o'clock, since my birthday,

                   since I was a child, since we met

- "Hace ... tiempo que no hago algo" . In Spanish, a present tense is used:
   Hace dos meses que no veo a Juan.
In English, we use the present perfect.
   I haven't seen Juan for two months.
In English, we can also use It's ... since  + Past Simple:
   It's two months since I (last) saw Juan.
Another example:
   Hace mucho tiempo que no voy a la playa.      = I haven't been to the beach for a long time.  /  It's a long time since I (last) went to the beach.



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The present perfect continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + have / has been + verb+ing

I have been working

you have been working

he has been working

she has been working

 it has been working

we have been working

you have been working

they have been working

NEGATIVE

Subject + haven't / hasn't been + verb+ing

I haven't been working

you haven't been working

he hasn't been working

she hasn't been working

 it hasn't been working

we haven't been working

you haven't been working

they haven't been working

INTERROGATIVE

have / has + subject + been + verb+ing

have I been working?

have you been working?

has he been working?

has she been working?

has it been working?

have we been working?

have you been working?

have they been working?

Examples:

   I am exhausted because I have been cleaning all day.

  She is fit because she has been working out lately.


The past perfect

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + had + participle

I had worked
you had worked
he had worked
she had worked
it had worked
we had worked
you had worked
they had worked

NEGATIVE

Subject + hadn't / had not + participle

I hadn't worked
you hadn't worked
he hadn't worked
she hadn't worked
it hadn't worked
we hadn't worked
you hadn't worked
they hadn't worked

INTERROGATIVE

had + subject + participle

had I worked?
had you worked?
had he worked?
had she worked?
had it worked?
had we worked?
had you worked?
had they worked?

the participle: formation
In English, we add -ed to a verb to form the past participle:
work -> worked

* Spelling: verb + -ed
 The spellling rules are like those for the formation of the past simple:

a) Verbs ending in -e  -> -e disappears
    dance -> danced;  love -> loved;  like -> liked; die -> died

b) Doubling of consonants
    with verbs ending in [1 consonant + 1 vowel + 1 consonant] and
         b1) end in -l (only in British English, but not in American English)
               travel -> travelled; cancel -> cancelling  (in British English only)
         b2) have 1 syllable
               stop -> stopped;  plan -> planning 
         b3) have 2 syllables, and the stress is on the last syllable
               prefer -> preferred;  admit -> admitted (because we pronounce: pre'fer, ad'mit)
              ! but not: answer -> answered; visit -> visited; listen -> listened (because we pronounce: 'answer)
c) Verbs ending in consonant + -y -> consonant + ied
                  study ->  studied; carry -> carried
              ! but not:  play -> played;  stay -> stayed
 
* ATTENTION: IRREGULAR VERBS
 Some verbs do not admit -ed. Those verbs are for example: go, be, come, drink, eat,... They are irregular verbs. Irregular verbs follow no rules, you must learn them from a list.
Here are some examples:
         go -> goed  gone          drink -> drinked  drunk          eat -> eated  eaten          be -> bed  been*

Click here to see a list of irregular verbs with Spanish translation.
 

Use of the past perfect

The Past Perfect refers to a past action that happened previously to another past moment or another past action.
See these examples:
 Yesterday by 12 o'clock I had gone to sleep. (= I went to sleep before 12 o'clock.)   
 
After they had got married, they travelled to Rome. (= They got married and then they travelled to Rome.)


 He couldn't answer the questions because he hadn't revised.


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The past perfect continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + had / has been + verb+ing

I had been working

you had been working

he had been working

she had been working

 it had been working

we had been working

you had been working

they had been working

NEGATIVE

Subject + hadn't / hasn't been + verb+ing

I hadn't been working

you hadn't been working

he hadn't been working

she hadn't been working

 it hadn't been working

we hadn't been working

you hadn't been working

they hadn't been working

INTERROGATIVE

had + subject + been + verb+ing

had been working?

had you been working?

had he been working?

had she been working?

had it been working?

had we been working?

had you been working?

had they been working?

 

Examples:

  She was bored because she had been doing nothing all day.

  The land was dry because the sun had been shining for days.


The future

There are several ways of expressing the future in English:

      a) will + infinitive
      b) be going to + infinitive
      c) The Present Continuous
      d) The Present Simple


a) will + infinitive

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + will + infinitive

I will work
you will work
he will work
she will work
it will work
we will work
you will work
they will work

NEGATIVE

Subject + will not / won't + infinitive

I will not / won't work
you will not / won't work
he will not / won't work
she will not / won't work
it will not / won't work
we will not / won't work
you will not / won't work
they will not / won't work

INTERROGATIVE

will + subject + Infinitive

will I work?
will you work?
will he work?
will she work?
will it work?
will we work?
will you work?
will they work?

Expressing the future with will + infinitive

We use will + infinitive to express:
 
a) Predictions  (assumptions of the speaker, weather, future, etc.)

 "You'll marry a rich man."  
 
"Tomorrow will be a sunny day."

   • It is often used with: think, expect, believe, be sure, be afraid.
            I'm sure you´ll enjoy the film.
   • It is used with adverbs of probability: probably, perhaps, certainly.
            Martin will probably phone us this evening.  

b) Intention and determination, promises.

"I will always love you."     

"I will solve all the problems of this city."

c) Just-made decisions: When we decide to do something at the moment of speaking. 

"I'll have an orange juice." 

"I'll take these ones."  

 "I'll answer it."   
 
d) Offers

- "It's too dark."   - "I'll switch on the light".

- "I have to wash the dishes."   -"I'll help you."

"I'll give Mr Jones your message."

 e) Requests: Will you help me, please?

 f) Refusals: He won't stay.

 g) promises: I will be careful, I promise.

 h) threats: Stop making that noise or I'll scream!


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b) be going to + infinitive

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is
going to + verb
 

I am going to work
you are going to work
he is going to work
she is going to work
it is going to work
we are going to work
you are going to work
they are going to work

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not / aren't / isn't
going to + verb
 

I am not going to work
you aren't going to work
he isn't going to work
she isn't going to work
it isn't going to work
we aren't going to work
you aren't going to work
they aren't going to work

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject + 
going to + verb

 

am I going to work?

are you going to work?

is he going to work?

is she going to work?

is it going to work?

are we going to work?

are you going to work?

are they going to work?


Expressing the future with be going to + infinitive

We use am / are / is going to + infinitive to express:

a) Intention
It expresses the subject's intention to perform a certain future action. This intention is always premeditated and there is usually also the idea that some preparation for the action has already been made. Actions expressed by this form are considered likely to be performed. (Will + infinitive expresses only intention, usually unpremeditated.)
 "I am going to have a shower."

"I am going to recycle this glass."
  
b) Prediction of something evident
Immediate and evident consequence of a present situation. It implies that there are signs that something will happen.  
Look at those clouds! It's going to rain!

She is going to win!

He is going to fall!


COMPARISON OF THE USE OF BE GOING TO AND WILL + INFINITIVE TO EXPRESS INTENTION
The be going to + infinitive form always implies a premeditated intention, and often an intention + plan.
Will + infin. implies intention alone, and this intention is usually, though not necessarily, unpremeditated.
If preparations for the action have been made, we must use be going to:
            I have bought some bricks and I'm going to build a garage.
If the intention is clearly unpremeditated, we must use will:
            —There is somebody at the hall door.             —I'll go and open it.
When the intention is neither clearly premeditated nor clearly unpremeditated, either form may be used:
            I will / am going to climb that mountain one day.             I won't / am not going to tell you my age.
But will is the best way of expressing determination:
            I will help you. (with stress on will. This means ‘I definitely intend to help you’)
Compare:
a) 1- "Don't climb up that tree, you'll fall and hurt yourself!" (still standing on the ground)
b) 1- "Look out! You're going to fall!" (After climbing up the tree)
c) 2- "What shall I do tomorrow? I know! I'll paint the kitchen. (decided at the moment of speaking)
d) 2- "Why are you putting on those clothes?" —"I'm going to paint the kitchen." (you had already decided)  

NOTE ALSO:

1. It is not very usual to put the verbs go and come into the be going to form. Instead, we generally use the present continuous tense, i.e., instead of 
           I am going to go 
we normally say 
           I am going 
and instead of 
           I am going to come 
we very often say 
           I'm coming.

2. Be going to can be used with time clauses when we wish to emphasize the subject's intention, although the future simple is used with time clauses.
            He is going to be a dentist when he grows up.

3. Be going to can be used without a time expression. It then usually refers to the immediate or near future.
            I'm going to play a Bach fugue.


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c)  the present continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is + verb+-ing

I am working  *
you are working
he is working
she is working
it is working
we are working
you are working
they are working

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not / aren't / isn't
+ verb+-ing  

I am not working
you aren't working
he isn't working
she isn't working
it isn't working
we aren't working
you aren't working
they aren't working

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject
+ verb+-ing


am I working?
are you working?
is he working?
is she working?
is it working?
are we working?
are you working?
are they working?

Expressing the future with the present continuous

When this tense is used with future meaning, the time must be mentioned or have been mentioned.  It expresses a definite arrangement in the near future. It is the sort of future events that you might put in your diary.
            The match is starting at 2.30 tomorrow.
Note: be going to can be used for the near future with a time expression as alternative to the present continuous:
            I'm meeting Tom at the station at six.             I'm going to meet Tom at the station at six.
But the first one implies an arrangement with Tom, whereas the second one doesn't (Tom may get a surprise!)
We never use the Present Continuous to make predictions about the future.
            It's going to rain / It will rain tomorrow.
but not: It's raining tomorrow!!


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d) the present simple

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + verb (+ s / es)

I work
you work
he works *
she works *
it works *
we work
you work
they work

NEGATIVE

Subject + do(es)n't + infinitive

I don't work
you don't work
he doesn't work
she doesn't work
it doesn't work
we don't work
you don't work
they don't work

INTERROGATIVE

Do(es) + subject + infinitive

Do I work?
Do you work?
Does he work?
Does she work?
Does it work?
Do we work?
Do you work?
Do they work?

Expressing the future with the present simple

This tense must also be accompanied by a time adverbial or other similar construction.

Uses:

1. Future events which are part of a fixed timetable or programme.
            What time does the film start tomorrow evening?
    For example:
    Statements about the calendar:   
            Tomorrow is Thursday.     School finishes on 1 July.
    When something has been planned and predetermined, especially plans for a journey or a fixed event: The plane takes off at 20.30.

2. In conditionals of Type 1 (after the expressions: if, unless, as/so long as, provided/providing that):
            We'll go to the beach if the weather is nice.

3. In clauses of time (after the expressions: when, while, as soon as, after, before, until).
            We won't go out until it stops raining.  


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OTHER FUTURE TENSES:

FUTURE CONTINUOUS: will BE + infinitive

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + will be + v-ing

I will be working
you will be work
he will be work
she will be work
it will be work
we will be work
you will be work
they will be work

NEGATIVE

Subject + will not / won't be + v-ing

I will not / won't be working
you will not / won't be working
he will not / won't be working
she will not / won't be working
it will not / won't be working
we will not / won't be working
you will not / won't be working
they will not / won't be working

INTERROGATIVE

will + subject + be + v-ing

will I be working?
will you be working?
will he be working?
will she be working?
will it be working?
will we be working?
will you be working?
will they be working?

Example: At this time tomorrow, I will be flying to Madrid.

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future perfect: will HAVE + PARTICIPLE

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + will have + participle

I will have worked
you will have worked
he will have worked
she will have worked
it will have worked
we will have worked
you will have worked
they will have worked

NEGATIVE

Subject + will not / won't have + participle 

I will not / won't have worked
you will not / won't have worked
he will not / won't have worked
she will not / won't have worked
it will not / won't have worked
we will not / won't have worked
you will not / won't have worked
they will not / won't have worked

INTERROGATIVE

will + subject + have + participle

will I have worked?
will you have worked?
will he have worked?
will she have worked?
will it have worked?
will we have worked?
will you have worked?
will they have worked?

Example:

 

Mrs Smith is pregnant now. She will have her child in August. By September, she will have had her baby.

 

 

We are flying to Los Angeles now. The plane is arriving in Los Angeles at 10.45. By 11 o'clock we will have arrived in Los Angeles.

 

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Modal verbs: can, could, must, have to, should

Some modal verbs in English:
      a) can
      b) could
      c) must
      d) have to
      e) should


a) can

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + can + infinitive

I can ...
you can ...
he can ...
she can ...
it can ...
we can ...
you can ...
they can ...

NEGATIVE

Subject + can't / cannot + infinitive

I can't / cannot ...
you can't / cannot ...
he can't / cannot ...
she can't / cannot ...
it can't / cannot ...
we can't / cannot ...
you can't / cannot ...
they can't / cannot ...

INTERROGATIVE

Can + subject + infinitive

Can I ...?
Can you ...?
Can he ...?
Can she ...?
Can it ...?
Can we ...?
Can you ...?
Can they ...?

NOTE
Can is usually followed by a verb in the infinitive.

USES OF can

a) Possibility in the present
He can't walk right now.
  
b) Permission in the present
"Can I come in, please?"
 
c) Ability in the present
She can play the piano.

 He can't ski.
  
He can't see.
 
 He can't hear.


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b) could

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + could + infinitive

I could ...
you could ...
he could ...
she could ...
it could ...
we could ...
you could ...
they could ...

NEGATIVE

Subject + couldn't / could not + infinitive

I couldn't / could not ...
you couldn't / could not ...
he couldn't / could not ...
she couldn't / could not ...
it couldn't / could not ...
we couldn't / could not ...
you couldn't / could not ...
they couldn't / could not ...

INTERROGATIVE

Could + subject + infinitive

Could I ...?
Could you ...?
Could he ...?
Could she ...?
Could it ...?
Could we ...?
Could you ...?
Could they ...? 

NOTE
Could is usually followed by a verb in the infinitive.

USES OF could

a) Possibility in the past
I couldn't sleep last night.
 
b) Permission in the past
I couldn't go out until late when I was young.
  
c) Ability in the past
       This is Mrs Jones. She is 80 years old now.   
Mrs Jones could dance very well when she was young.


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c) must & mustn't

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + must + infinitive
I must ...
you must ...
he must ...
she must ...
it must ...
we must ...
you must ...
they must ...

NEGATIVE

Subject + mustn't/must not + infinitive
I mustn't / must not ...
you mustn't / must not ...
he mustn't / must not ...
she mustn't / must not ...
it mustn't / must not ...
we mustn't / must not ...
you mustn't / must not ...
they mustn't / must not ...

INTERROGATIVE

Must + subject + infinitive
Must I  ...?
Must you  ...?
Must he  ...?
Must she...?
Must it  ...?
Must we  ...?
Must you  ...?
Must they  ...?

NOTE
Must and mustn't are usually followed by a verb in the infinitive.  

USE OF must

Must expresses obligation in the present and in the past.
You must stop here.
 

USE OF mustn't

Mustn't expresses prohibition in the present and in the past.
You mustn't smoke here.
NOTE: Be careful with the spelling of "mustn't"!


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d) have to

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + have / has to + infinitive
I have to ...
you have to ...
he has to ...
she has to ...
it has to ...
we have to ...
you have to ...
they have to ...

NEGATIVE

Subject + do(es)n't have to + infinitive
I don't have to ...
you don't have to ...
he doesn't have to ...
she doesn't have to ...
it doesn't have to ...
we don't have to ...
you don't have to ...
they don't have to ...

INTERROGATIVE

Do(es) + subject + have to + infinitive
Do I have to ...?
Do you have to ...?
Does he have to ...?
Does she have to ...?
Does it have to ...?
Do we have to ...?
Do you have to ...?
Do they have to ...?

NOTE
-Have to is usually followed by a verb in the infinitive.

USE OF have to

IN THE AFFIRMATIVE
We use have to to express obligation. It is similar to must.

I have to do my homework. -> This is an obligation for me. 
This is similar to: I must do my homework.
 
IN THE NEGATIVE
We use don't / doesn't have to to express absence of obligation (no obligation). This verb does not express prohibition. 
  
I don't have to do any housework. -> This is not an obligation for me. I can do it if I want to.
This is very different from: I mustn't do my homework. (= It is a prohibition).


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e) should

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + should + infinitive

I should ...
you should ...
he should ...
she should ...
it should ...
we should ...
you should ...
they should ...

NEGATIVE

Subject + shouldn't / should not + infinitive  
I shouldn't / should not ...
you shouldn't / should not ...
he shouldn't / should not ...
she shouldn't / should not ...
it shouldn't / should not ...
we shouldn't / should not ...
you shouldn't / should not ...
you shouldn't / should not ...

INTERROGATIVE

Should + subject + infinitive

Should I ...?
Should you ...?
Should he ...?
Should she ...?
Should it ...?
Should we ...?
Should you ...?
Should they ...?

NOTE
Should is usually followed by a verb in the infinitive.

USE OF should

We use should to express advice or suggestion, convenience to do something. It does not express obligation. 
 
She is too fat.                   She should take exercise.



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Conditional sentences

1. TYPE 1: Real conditionals

IF + Subject + Present Simple   //   Subject + Future (= will + infinitive)
    Examples: If he comes, I will be happy.                     If he comes, I won't stay at home.                     If he doesn't come, I will be sad.                     If you don't call me, I won't call you.                     If he needs it, will you help him?
   
    Note that the if-clause can also appear after the main clause:
                     I will be happy if he comes.

2. TYPE 2: Unreal or hypothetical conditionals

IF + Subject + Past Simple   //   Subject + Conditional (= would + infinitive)
    Examples:  If he came, I would be happy.                      If he came, I wouldn't stay at home.                      If he didn't come, I would be sad.                      If you didn't call me, I wouldn't call you.                      If he needed it, would you help him?
   
    Note that the if-clause can also appear after the main clause:
                     I would be happy if he came

3. TYPE 3: Impossible conditionals

IF + Subject + Past Perfect   //   Subject + Conditional Perfect 
    Examples:    If he had studied, he would have passed the exam. (=  he didn't study, so he  didn't pass the exam.)
                     If he had studied, he wouldn't have failed the exam.  (=he didn't study, so he failed the exam.)
                     If he hadn't helped me, I wouldn't have achieved it. (He helped me,  so  I achieved it.)
                     If you hadn't called me, I wouldn't have known.                      If he had called you, would you have helped him?
    Note that the if-clause can also appear after the main clause:
                     I would have gone to New York if I had had the money.

 

4. Unless

                  unless = if not

"Unless" is a conditional and negative particle. It can replace "if" and the negation of the verb.

"Unless" can be used with conditional of type 1, type 2, and type 3.

  Examples:   

            I won't do the work if they don't pay me. = I won't do the work unless they pay me. (type 1)

            If he doesn't study, he won't learn the language. = Unless he studies, he won't learn the language.  (type 1)

            I wouldn't call you if you didn't call me. = I wouldn't call you unless you called me.   (type 2)

            If you hadn't called me, I wouldn't have known. = Unless you had called me, I wouldn't have known.  (tp. 3)



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Infinitive and gerund


Infinitives, to + infinitive, and gerunds (verb+-ing) are used in English in the following cases:

a) after certain verbs

+ infinitive

 
MODAL VERBS:
can / can't
could / couldn't
must / mustn't
should / shouldn't
may / mayn't
might / mightn't
 
OTHER VERBS
make
let
would rather
had better

 

 

+ to infinitive

agree
aim
allow
appear
arrange
ask
attempt
beg
begin*
bother
care
can't afford
cease*
choose
claim
consent
continue*
decide
decline
demand
determine
encourage
expect
fail
forget
guarantee
happen
have
help
hesitate
hope
intend
invite
learn
long
manage
mean
neglect
offer
plan
prepare
pretend
promise
prove
persuade
refuse
remind
request
resolve
seem
start*
swear
teach
tend
threaten
used (habit)
volunteer
vow
want
warn
wish
would like
would love
would hate
would prefer

+ gerund

admit
avoid
be worth
begin*
enjoy
can't bear
can't help
can't stand
cease*
continue*
deny
dislike
don't mind
enjoy
fancy
feel like
finish
give up
imagine
involve
hate
keep
like
practise
resent
resist
risk
start*
stop
suggest
 
AFTER PREPOSITIONS
WITH VERBS AS SUBJECTS
WITH ACTIVities

When another verb follows one of these verbs, the second verb must be in the infinitive, or to + infinitive, or a gerund (verb + -ing). Look at these examples:
I can dance very well. I want to dance with you. I love dancing
We must follow the rules in the list.

Sometimes, a verb has got two possibilities. They are both correct, and they have the same meaning. These verb have got a star (*). Look at these examples:
I began to dance. = I began dancing.  I started to laugh. = I started laughing.  I continued to work with you. = I continued working.  It ceased to rain. = It ceased raining. 

Sometimes, a verb has got two possibilities, but they have a different meaning. Look at these examples:
I stopped to speak. (I was doing something else, and then I stopped this activity and started to speak.)
  but: I stopped speaking. (I was speaking, and then I stopped this activity.)
I remembered to bring the camera. (I wanted to bring the camera. I remembered this, so I brought it.)
  but:  I remember closing the door.  (I closed the door. Now I remember I did this.)
I mean to be the best in my class. (= I am determined to be the best. I have this intention.)
  but: You can be the best, but that means working hard. (= This implies that you have to work hard.). 

b) after a preposition

After a preposition, we use the gerund. Look at these examples:
I am tired of working.
I am interested in buying a house.
He is good at singing.
He left without talking to me.

c) verb as subject

When the verb is the subject of the sentence, we usually use the gerund. Look at these examples:
Smoking is bad for you health. I think that reading is one of the most interesting things to do. Driving dangerously can cause you a lot of problems.


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The passive voice

1. Present simple

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is
+ participle


I am loved
you are loved
he is loved
she is loved
it is loved
we are loved
you are loved
they are loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not/ aren't / isn't
+ participle


I am not loved
you aren't loved
he isn't loved
she isn't loved
it isn't loved
we aren't loved
you aren't loved
they aren't loved

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject
+ participle


am I  loved?
are you loved?
is he loved?
is she loved?
is it loved?
are we loved?
are you loved?
are they loved?

2. Past simple

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + was / were +
participle


I was loved
you were loved
he was loved
she was loved
it was loved
we were loved
you were loved
they were loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + wasn't / weren't
+ participle


I wasn't loved
you weren't loved
he wasn't loved
she wasn't loved
it wasn't loved
we weren't loved
you weren't loved
they weren't loved

INTERROGATIVE

was / were + Subject
+ participle


was I  loved?
were you loved?
was he loved?
was she loved?
was it loved?
were we loved?
were you loved?
were they loved?
NOTE 
The Passive voice is expressed with the verb BE and the participle. The tense (Present Simple, Present Continuous, Present Perfect, Past Simple, etc.) is expressed in the verb BE.
To see more information about the participle click here.
 

CONVERSION FROM ACTIVE SENTENCES INTO PASSIVE SENTENCES

Active sentences usually have a subject, a verb, and direct object and/or an indirect object:
             He gave me the money.  (subject, verb, indirect object, direct object)
In the passive sentence, the direct object becomes the subject.
            The money was given to me.
And in English, the indirect object can also become the subject.
            I was given the money.
Finally, the subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, and is introduced with by:
           The money was given to me by him.            I was given the money by him.
Note that after by, we use object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them).
 

USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE

In English, the passive voice is very usual, more usual than, for example, in Spanish. It is used whenever we don't want to mention the subject because it is not important, or because we don't know it. The emphasis in on the action and not on the person or object who does it.

A lot of toxic chemicals are spilt in the river.


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other passive tenses:


3. Present continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is being
+ participle


I am being loved
you are being loved
he is being loved
she is being loved
it is being loved
we are being loved
you are being loved
they are being loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not/ aren't / isn't being
+ participle


I am not being loved
you aren't being loved
he isn't being loved
she isn't being loved
it isn't being loved
we aren't being loved
you aren't being loved
they aren't being loved

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject being
+ participle


am being I  loved?
are being you loved?
is being he loved?
is being she loved?
is being it loved?
are being we loved?
are being you loved?
are being they loved?

4. Past continuous

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + was / were being
+ participle


I was being loved
you were being loved
he was being loved
she was being loved
it was being loved
we were being loved
you were being loved
they were being loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + wasn't / weren't being
+ participle


I wasn't being loved
you weren't being loved
he wasn't being loved
she wasn't being loved
it wasn't being loved
we weren't being loved
you weren't being loved
they weren't being loved

INTERROGATIVE

was / were + Subject being
+ participle


was I being loved?
were you being loved?
was he being loved?
was she being loved?
was it being loved?
were we being loved?
were you being loved?
were they being loved?

5. Present perfect

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + have / has been
+ participle


I have been loved
you have been loved
he has been loved
she has been loved
it has been loved
we have been loved
you have been loved
they have been loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + haven't / hasn't been
+ participle


I haven't been loved
you haven't been loved
he hasn't been loved
she hasn't been loved
it hasn't been loved
we haven't been loved
you haven't been loved
they haven't been loved

INTERROGATIVE

has / have  + Subject been
+ participle


have I  been loved?
have you been loved?
has he been loved?
has she been loved?
has it been loved?
have we been loved?
have you been loved?
have they been loved?

6. Past perfect

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + had been + participle

I had been loved
you had been loved
he had been loved
she had been loved
it had been loved
we had been loved
you had been loved
they had been loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + hadn't been + participle

I hadn't been loved
you hadn't been loved
he hadn't been loved
she hadn't been loved
it hadn't been loved
we hadn't been loved
you hadn't been loved
they hadn't been loved

INTERROGATIVE

had  + Subject been + participle

had I  been loved?
had you been loved?
had he been loved?
had she been loved?
had it been loved?
had we been loved?
had you been loved?
had they been loved?

7. Future: will

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + will be + participle

I will be loved
you will be loved
he will be loved
she will be loved
it will be loved
we will be loved
you will be loved
they will be loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + will be +  participle

I will be loved
you will be loved
he will be loved
she will be loved
it will be loved
we will be loved
you will be loved
they will be loved

INTERROGATIVE

will be + Subject + participle

will I be loved?
will you be loved?
will he be loved?
will she be loved?
will it be loved?
will we be loved?
will you be loved?
will they be loved?

8. Be going to

AFFIRMATIVE

Subject + am / are / is
going to be + participle

I am going to be loved
you are going to be loved
he is going to be loved
she is going to be loved
it is going to be loved
we are going to beloved
you are going to be loved
they are going to be loved

NEGATIVE

Subject + am not/ aren't / isn't
going to be + participle


I am not going to be loved
you aren't going to be loved
he isn't going to be loved
she isn't going to be loved
it isn't going to be loved
we aren't going to be loved
you aren't going to be loved
they aren't going to be loved

INTERROGATIVE

am / are / is + Subject
going to be + participle


am I  going to be loved?
are you going to be loved?
is he going to be loved?
is she going to be loved?
is it going to be loved?
are we going to be loved?
are you going to be loved?
are they going to be loved?


2002 - 2014 © Montse Morales
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